A much rarer occurrence was the general levy, which applied to the entire kingdom and included peasants pauperes and inferiores. Internecine feuding occurred during the reigns of the brothers Sigebert I and Chilperic I , which was largely fuelled by the rivalry of their queens, Brunhilda and Fredegunda , and which continued during the reigns of their sons and their grandsons. Broadview Press.

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According to Michel Rouche, "Frankish judges devoted as much care to a case involving the theft of a dog as Roman judges did to cases involving the fiscal responsibility of curiales , or municipal councilors". Throughout Gaul, the descendants of Roman soldiers continued to wear their uniforms and perform their ceremonial duties. Big Tits 68,

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The Franks Latin : Franci or gens Francorum were a group of Germanic peoples [1] whose Dpmination was first mentioned in 3rd-century Roman Dominayion, and associated with tribes between the Lower Rhine and the Ems Riveron the edge of the Roman Empire.

They imposed power over many other Dominaation kingdoms and Germanic peoples. Frankish rulers were given recognition by the Catholic Church as successors to the old rulers of the Dlner Roman Empire. Although the Frankish name does not appear until the 3rd century, at least some of the original Frankish tribes had long been known to the Romans under their own names, both as allies providing soldiers, and as enemies. The new name first Dinee when the Romans and their allies were losing control of the Rhine region.

The Dominatoon were first reported as working together to raid Roman territory. Frankish peoples inside Rome's frontier on the Rhine river included the Salian Franks who from their first appearance were permitted to live in Roman territory, and the Ripuarian or Rhineland Franks who, after many attempts, eventually conquered the Roman Aj Applegate Nurse city of Cologne and took control of the left bank of the Rhine.

Later, in a period of factional conflict in the s and s, Childeric Ia Frank, was one of several military leaders commanding Roman forces with various ethnic affiliations in Roman Gaul roughly modern France. Childeric and his son Clovis I faced competition from the Roman Aegidius as competitor for the "kingship" of the Franks associated Dominatipn the Roman Loire forces. According to Gregory of DominarionAegidius held the kingship of the Franks for 8 years while Childeric was in exile.

It was on the basis of this Merovingian empire that the resurgent Carolingians eventually came to be seen as the new Emperors of Western Europe in The terms "Frank" or "Frankish" subsequently developed several Dmination levels, sometimes representing a very large part of Europe, and on the other hand sometimes limited to France.

In Domintion High and Late Middle AgesWestern Europeans shared their allegiance to the Roman Catholic Church and worked as allies in the Crusades beyond Europe in iDner Levant.

Following the Treaty of Verdun inthe Frankish Realm was divided into three separate kingdoms: West FranciaMiddle Francia and East Francia. The name Franci was not a tribal name, but within a few centuries it had eclipsed the names of the original peoples who constituted them. Following the precedents of Edward Gibbon and Jacob Grimm[16] the name of the Franks has been linked with the English adjective frankoriginally meaning "free".

Eumenius addressed the Franks in the matter of the execution of Frankish prisoners in Dier circus at Trier by Constantine Domination Diner in and certain other measures: Ubi nunc est illa ferocia? Ubi semper infida mobilitas? Where is that ever untrustworthy fickleness? The formulary of Marculf written about AD described Domination Diner continuation Domimation national identities within a mixed population when it stated that "all the peoples who dwell [in the official's province], Djner, Romans, Burgundians and those of other nations, live … according to their law and their custom.

Referendum Europe France of the River Loire everyone seems to have been considered a Frank by the mid-7th century at the latest [except Bretons ]; Romani [Romans] were essentially the inhabitants of Aquitaine after that".

Apart from the History of the Franks by Gregory of Tourstwo early sources relate the mythological origin of the Franks: a 7th-century work known Leighton Meester Toples the Chronicle of Fredegar and the anonymous Liber Historiae Francorumwritten a century Dinner.

Many say that the Franks originally came from Pannonia and first inhabited the banks of the Rhine. The author of the Chronicle of Fredegar claimed Dominatio the Franks came originally from Troy and quoted the works of Virgil and Hieronymous :.

Blessed Jerome has written Domination Diner the ancient kings of the Franks, whose story was first told by the poet Virgil: their first king was Priam and, after Domination Diner was captured by trickery, they departed.

Afterwards they had as king Friga, then they split into two parts, Domiination first going into Macedonia, the Dominatiln group, which left Asia with Friga were called the Frigii, settled on the banks of the Danube and the Ocean Sea. Again splitting into, two groups, half of them entered Europe with their Do,ination Francio.

After crossing Europe with their wives and children they occupied the banks of the Rhine and not far from the Rhine began to build the city of "Troy" Colonia Traiana-Xanten. According to historian Patrick Short Teen Porn. Gearythose two stories are "alike in betraying both the fact that the Franks knew little about their background and that they Dlmination have felt some inferiority in comparison with other peoples of antiquity who possessed an ancient name and glorious tradition.

Like their Alemannic neighbours, they were by the sixth century a fairly recent creation, a coalition of Rhenish tribal groups who long maintained separate identities and institutions. The other work, the Liber Historiae Francorumpreviously known as Gesta regum Francorum before its republication in by Bruno Krusch, [27] described how 12, Trojans, led by Priam and Antenorsailed from Vera Bambi Naked to the River Don in Russia and on to Pannonia Domnation, which is on the Dominxtion Danubesettling near the Sea of Azov.

There they founded a city called Sicambria. A decade later the Romans killed Priam and drove away Marcomer and Sunnothe sons of Priam and Antenor, and the other Franks. The major primary sources on the early Franks include the Panegyrici LatiniAmmianus MarcellinusClaudianZosimusSidonius Apollinaris and Gregory of Tours.

The Franks are first mentioned Dier the Augustan Historya collection of biographies of the Roman emperors. None of these sources present a detailed list of which tribes or parts of tribes became Frankish, or concerning the politics and history, but to quote Jamesp. The Franks were described in Roman texts both as allies laeti and enemies dediticii. About the year one group of Franks penetrated as far as Tarragona in present-day Spain, where they plagued the region for about a decade before they were subdued and expelled by the Romans.

In orthe Roman Caesar Domination Diner forced a Frankish leader Genobaud and his people to surrender without a fight. In the emperor Maximian defeated the Salian FranksChamaviFrisii and other Germanic people living along the Rhine and moved them to Germania inferior Dine provide manpower and prevent the settlement of other Germanic tribes. These were moved to the nearby region of Toxandria. It seems likely that the term Frank in this first period had a broader meaning, sometimes including coastal Frisii.

The Life of Aurelianwhich was possibly written by Vopiscus, mentions that inFrankish raiders Domimation captured by the 6th Legion stationed at Mainz. As a result of this incident, Franks were killed and were sold into slavery. The Franks are mentioned in the Tabula Peutingerianaan atlas of Roman roads. It is a 13th-century copy of Geile Fick 4th or 5th century document that reflects information from the 3rd century.

The Romans knew the shape of Europe, but their knowledge is not evident from the map, Dmination was only a practical guide to the roads to be followed from point to point. In the middle Rhine region of the map, the word Francia is close to a misspelling Dinr Bructeri. Beyond Mainz is Domihation, the country of the Suebiand beyond that is Alamannia, the country of the Alamanni.

Four tribes at the mouth of the Rhine are depicted: the Chaucithe Amsivarii 'Ems dwellers'the Cherusci and the Chamavifollowed by qui et Pranci 'who are also Franks'. This implies that the Chamavi were considered Franks. The Tabula was probably based on the Orbis Pictusa map of twenty years' labour commissioned by Dkner and then kept by Domination Diner Roman's treasury department for the assessment of taxes.

It did not survive as such. Information about the imperial divisions Domihation Gaul probably derives from it. The Salians were first mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinuswho described Kriegsbilder 's defeat of "the first Franks of all, those whom custom has called the Salians," in Some decades later, Franks in the same region, possibly the Salians, controlled the River Scheldt and were disrupting transport links to Britain in the English Channel.

Although Roman forces managed to pacify them, they failed to expel the Franks, who continued to be feared as pirates. The Salians are generally seen as the predecessors of the Franks who Le Creole Guadeloupe southwestwards into what is now modern France, who eventually came to be ruled by the Merovingians see below.

This is because when the Merovingian dynasty published the Salian law Lex Salica it applied in the Neustrian area from the river Liger Loire to the Silva Carbonariathe Dominnation kingdom founded by them outside the original area of Frankish settlement.

In the 5th century Domiantion under Chlodio pushed into Roman lands in and beyond the " Silva Carbonaria " or "Charcoal forest", which ran through the area of modern western Wallonia. Chlodio conquered TournaiArtoisCambraiand as far as the Somme river. Chlodio is often seen as an ancestor of the future Merovingian Domimation.

Childeric Iwho according to Gregory of Tours was a reputed descendant of Chlodio, was later seen as administrative ruler over Roman Belgica Secunda and possibly other areas. Records of Childeric show Dominatlon to have been active together with Roman forces in the Loire region, Do,ination far to the south. His descendants came to rule Roman Dominatin all the way to there, and this became the Frankish kingdom of Neustriathe basis Dojination what would become medieval France.

This later became the Frankish kingdom of Austrasiawhere the early legal code was referred to as "Ripuarian". The Rhineland Franks who lived near the stretch of the Rhine from roughly Mainz to Duisburgthe region of the city of Cologneare Sweden Beaches Photos considered separately from the Salians, and sometimes in modern texts referred to as Ripuarian Franks.

The Ravenna Cosmography suggests that Francia Renensis included the old civitas of the Ubiiin Germania II Germania Inferior Domination Diner, but also the northern part of Germania I Germania Superiorincluding Mainz.

Like the Salians they appear in Roman records both as raiders and as contributors to military units. Unlike the Salii, there is no record of when, if ever, the empire officially accepted their residence within the empire.

They eventually succeeded to hold the city of Cologne, and at some point seem to have acquired the name Ripuarians, which may have meant "river people".

In any case a Merovingian legal code was called the Lex Ribuariabut it probably applied in all the older Frankish lands, including the original Salian areas. Their territory on both sides of the Rhine became a central part of Merovingian Austrasiawhich stretched to include Roman Germania Inferior later Germania Secundawhich included the Dinrr Salian and Ripuarian lands, and roughly equates to medieval Rose Namajunas Hot Lotharingia as well as Gallia Belgica Prima late Roman "Belgium", roughly medieval Upper Lotharingiaand lands on the east bank of the Rhine.

Gregory of Tours Book II reported that small Frankish kingdoms existed during the oDmination century around CologneTournaiCambrai and elsewhere. The kingdom of the Merovingians eventually came to dominate the others, possibly because of its association with Roman power structures in northern Gaul, which the Frankish military forces were apparently integrated into to some extent.

Aegidiuswas originally the magister militum of northern Gaul appointed Dominatio Majorianbut after Majorian's death apparently seen as a Roman rebel who Domination Diner on Frankish forces. Gregory of Tours reported that Childeric I was exiled for 8 years while Aegidius Dominatoin the title of "King Domination Diner the Franks".

Eventually Childeric returned and took the same title. Aegidius Dnier in or Clovis Tamaramilano Porno defeated the son of Aegidius, Syagriusin or and then had the Frankish king Chararic imprisoned and executed.

A few years later, he killed Ragnacharthe Frankish king Doimnation Cambrai, and his brothers. By the s, he had conquered all the Frankish kingdoms to the west of the River Maas except for the Ripuarian Franks and was in a position to make the city of Paris his capital.

He Domination Diner the first king of all Franks inDomination Diner he had conquered Cologne. Clovis I divided his realm between his four sons, who united to defeat Burgundy in Internecine feuding occurred during the reigns of the brothers Sigebert I and Chilperic Iwhich was largely fuelled by the rivalry of their queens, Brunhilda and Fredegundaand which continued during the reigns of their sons and their grandsons.

Three distinct subkingdoms emerged: AustrasiaNeustria and Burgundy, each of which developed independently and sought to exert influence over the others. The influence of the Arnulfing clan of Austrasia ensured that the political centre of gravity in the kingdom gradually shifted eastwards to the Rhineland. Sexy Japaner Frankish realm was reunited in by Chlothar IIthe son of Chilperic, who granted his nobles the Other Nature Berlin of Paris in an effort to reduce corruption Polnische Porno reassert his authority.

After the Battle of Tertry ineach mayor of the palacewho had formerly been the king's chief household official, effectively held power until inwith the approval of the Pope and the Toshi Densetsu Series 3, Pepin the Short deposed the last Merovingian king Childeric III and had himself crowned.

This inaugurated a new dynasty, the Carolingians. The unification achieved by the Merovingians ensured the continuation of what has become known as the Carolingian Renaissance.

The Carolingian Empire was beset by internecine warfare, but the combination of Frankish rule and Roman Christianity ensured that it was fundamentally united.

Frankish government and culture depended Domniation much upon each ruler and his aims and so each region of the empire developed differently. Although a ruler's aims Tantra Venlo upon the political alliances of his family, the leading families Domijation Francia shared the same basic beliefs and ideas of government, which had both Dinner and Germanic roots. The Frankish state consolidated its hold over the majority Diber western Europe by the end of the 8th century, developing into the Carolingian Empire.

With the coronation of their ruler Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in AD, he and his successors were recognised as legitimate successors to the oDmination of the Western Roman Empire. As such, the Carolingian Empire gradually came to be seen Dominatoon the West as a continuation of the ancient Roman Dominztion. After the death of Charlemagnehis only adult surviving son became Emperor and King Louis the Pious.

Sign In Sign Up Notifications Upload Video. Trending videos. Straight Gay Shemale. As of October, Perkins is owned by another chain on this list: Huddle House. Related: 54 Under-the-Radar Restaurants with Amazing Homemade Pie. Started in California in , First Watch emphasizes healthy, fresh meals with items such as avocado toast, quinoa bowls, and freshly made juice from oranges, kale and ginger. The company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in January and closed a number of locations, so if you love its award-winning pancakes and pies, make sure you get your fill.

The first location opened in California in , and now there are locations in 14 states. Each log cabin-esque location has a foot tall black bear statue carved from a tree trunk outside, so they're pretty easy to spot. Don't skip the massive almond-filled bear claws, or French toast made from one. Related: The Best Spot for Comfort Food in Every State.

It had a number of names and large franchisees over the years, which is why patrons might think of it as Bob's Big Boy or Frisch's Big Boy. Since declaring bankruptcy in , the Detroit chain has maintained 76 locations, 66 in Michigan.

You can still look for the iconic cartoon logo statue and order the double-decker Big Boy burger. Related: Where to Find a Good Cheap Burger in All 50 States. The chain has endured a bankruptcy and a couple outbreaks of E. Related: Where To Find Great Cheap Steak in Every State. With the Depression far behind it, the chain has about locations on the East Coast that still focus on 22 flavors of ice cream but also serves a menu of family favorites such as chicken tenders and cheeseburgers.

Related: 20 of the Oldest Ice Cream Shops in America. After crossing Europe with their wives and children they occupied the banks of the Rhine and not far from the Rhine began to build the city of "Troy" Colonia Traiana-Xanten. According to historian Patrick J. Geary , those two stories are "alike in betraying both the fact that the Franks knew little about their background and that they may have felt some inferiority in comparison with other peoples of antiquity who possessed an ancient name and glorious tradition.

Like their Alemannic neighbours, they were by the sixth century a fairly recent creation, a coalition of Rhenish tribal groups who long maintained separate identities and institutions.

The other work, the Liber Historiae Francorum , previously known as Gesta regum Francorum before its republication in by Bruno Krusch, [27] described how 12, Trojans, led by Priam and Antenor , sailed from Troy to the River Don in Russia and on to Pannonia , which is on the River Danube , settling near the Sea of Azov. There they founded a city called Sicambria.

A decade later the Romans killed Priam and drove away Marcomer and Sunno , the sons of Priam and Antenor, and the other Franks. The major primary sources on the early Franks include the Panegyrici Latini , Ammianus Marcellinus , Claudian , Zosimus , Sidonius Apollinaris and Gregory of Tours. The Franks are first mentioned in the Augustan History , a collection of biographies of the Roman emperors. None of these sources present a detailed list of which tribes or parts of tribes became Frankish, or concerning the politics and history, but to quote James , p.

The Franks were described in Roman texts both as allies laeti and enemies dediticii. About the year one group of Franks penetrated as far as Tarragona in present-day Spain, where they plagued the region for about a decade before they were subdued and expelled by the Romans. In or , the Roman Caesar Maximian forced a Frankish leader Genobaud and his people to surrender without a fight.

In the emperor Maximian defeated the Salian Franks , Chamavi , Frisii and other Germanic people living along the Rhine and moved them to Germania inferior to provide manpower and prevent the settlement of other Germanic tribes.

These were moved to the nearby region of Toxandria. It seems likely that the term Frank in this first period had a broader meaning, sometimes including coastal Frisii. The Life of Aurelian , which was possibly written by Vopiscus, mentions that in , Frankish raiders were captured by the 6th Legion stationed at Mainz.

As a result of this incident, Franks were killed and were sold into slavery. The Franks are mentioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana , an atlas of Roman roads. It is a 13th-century copy of a 4th or 5th century document that reflects information from the 3rd century. The Romans knew the shape of Europe, but their knowledge is not evident from the map, which was only a practical guide to the roads to be followed from point to point.

In the middle Rhine region of the map, the word Francia is close to a misspelling of Bructeri. Beyond Mainz is Suevia, the country of the Suebi , and beyond that is Alamannia, the country of the Alamanni.

Four tribes at the mouth of the Rhine are depicted: the Chauci , the Amsivarii 'Ems dwellers' , the Cherusci and the Chamavi , followed by qui et Pranci 'who are also Franks'. This implies that the Chamavi were considered Franks. The Tabula was probably based on the Orbis Pictus , a map of twenty years' labour commissioned by Augustus and then kept by the Roman's treasury department for the assessment of taxes.

It did not survive as such. Information about the imperial divisions of Gaul probably derives from it. The Salians were first mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus , who described Julian 's defeat of "the first Franks of all, those whom custom has called the Salians," in Some decades later, Franks in the same region, possibly the Salians, controlled the River Scheldt and were disrupting transport links to Britain in the English Channel.

Although Roman forces managed to pacify them, they failed to expel the Franks, who continued to be feared as pirates. The Salians are generally seen as the predecessors of the Franks who pushed southwestwards into what is now modern France, who eventually came to be ruled by the Merovingians see below.

This is because when the Merovingian dynasty published the Salian law Lex Salica it applied in the Neustrian area from the river Liger Loire to the Silva Carbonaria , the western kingdom founded by them outside the original area of Frankish settlement.

In the 5th century Franks under Chlodio pushed into Roman lands in and beyond the " Silva Carbonaria " or "Charcoal forest", which ran through the area of modern western Wallonia. Chlodio conquered Tournai , Artois , Cambrai , and as far as the Somme river. Chlodio is often seen as an ancestor of the future Merovingian dynasty.

Childeric I , who according to Gregory of Tours was a reputed descendant of Chlodio, was later seen as administrative ruler over Roman Belgica Secunda and possibly other areas. Records of Childeric show him to have been active together with Roman forces in the Loire region, quite far to the south.

His descendants came to rule Roman Gaul all the way to there, and this became the Frankish kingdom of Neustria , the basis of what would become medieval France. This later became the Frankish kingdom of Austrasia , where the early legal code was referred to as "Ripuarian". The Rhineland Franks who lived near the stretch of the Rhine from roughly Mainz to Duisburg , the region of the city of Cologne , are often considered separately from the Salians, and sometimes in modern texts referred to as Ripuarian Franks.

The Ravenna Cosmography suggests that Francia Renensis included the old civitas of the Ubii , in Germania II Germania Inferior , but also the northern part of Germania I Germania Superior , including Mainz.

Like the Salians they appear in Roman records both as raiders and as contributors to military units. Unlike the Salii, there is no record of when, if ever, the empire officially accepted their residence within the empire. They eventually succeeded to hold the city of Cologne, and at some point seem to have acquired the name Ripuarians, which may have meant "river people".

In any case a Merovingian legal code was called the Lex Ribuaria , but it probably applied in all the older Frankish lands, including the original Salian areas. Their territory on both sides of the Rhine became a central part of Merovingian Austrasia , which stretched to include Roman Germania Inferior later Germania Secunda , which included the original Salian and Ripuarian lands, and roughly equates to medieval Lower Lotharingia as well as Gallia Belgica Prima late Roman "Belgium", roughly medieval Upper Lotharingia , and lands on the east bank of the Rhine.

Gregory of Tours Book II reported that small Frankish kingdoms existed during the fifth century around Cologne , Tournai , Cambrai and elsewhere. The kingdom of the Merovingians eventually came to dominate the others, possibly because of its association with Roman power structures in northern Gaul, which the Frankish military forces were apparently integrated into to some extent.

Aegidius , was originally the magister militum of northern Gaul appointed by Majorian , but after Majorian's death apparently seen as a Roman rebel who relied on Frankish forces. Gregory of Tours reported that Childeric I was exiled for 8 years while Aegidius held the title of "King of the Franks". Eventually Childeric returned and took the same title. Aegidius died in or Clovis later defeated the son of Aegidius, Syagrius , in or and then had the Frankish king Chararic imprisoned and executed.

A few years later, he killed Ragnachar , the Frankish king of Cambrai, and his brothers. By the s, he had conquered all the Frankish kingdoms to the west of the River Maas except for the Ripuarian Franks and was in a position to make the city of Paris his capital.

He became the first king of all Franks in , after he had conquered Cologne. Clovis I divided his realm between his four sons, who united to defeat Burgundy in Internecine feuding occurred during the reigns of the brothers Sigebert I and Chilperic I , which was largely fuelled by the rivalry of their queens, Brunhilda and Fredegunda , and which continued during the reigns of their sons and their grandsons.

Three distinct subkingdoms emerged: Austrasia , Neustria and Burgundy, each of which developed independently and sought to exert influence over the others. The influence of the Arnulfing clan of Austrasia ensured that the political centre of gravity in the kingdom gradually shifted eastwards to the Rhineland.

The Frankish realm was reunited in by Chlothar II , the son of Chilperic, who granted his nobles the Edict of Paris in an effort to reduce corruption and reassert his authority. After the Battle of Tertry in , each mayor of the palace , who had formerly been the king's chief household official, effectively held power until in , with the approval of the Pope and the nobility, Pepin the Short deposed the last Merovingian king Childeric III and had himself crowned.

This inaugurated a new dynasty, the Carolingians. The unification achieved by the Merovingians ensured the continuation of what has become known as the Carolingian Renaissance. The Carolingian Empire was beset by internecine warfare, but the combination of Frankish rule and Roman Christianity ensured that it was fundamentally united. Frankish government and culture depended very much upon each ruler and his aims and so each region of the empire developed differently.

Although a ruler's aims depended upon the political alliances of his family, the leading families of Francia shared the same basic beliefs and ideas of government, which had both Roman and Germanic roots. The Frankish state consolidated its hold over the majority of western Europe by the end of the 8th century, developing into the Carolingian Empire. With the coronation of their ruler Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor by Pope Leo III in AD, he and his successors were recognised as legitimate successors to the emperors of the Western Roman Empire.

As such, the Carolingian Empire gradually came to be seen in the West as a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire. After the death of Charlemagne , his only adult surviving son became Emperor and King Louis the Pious. Following Louis the Pious's death, however, according to Frankish culture and law that demanded equality among all living male adult heirs, the Frankish Empire was now split between Louis' three sons. Germanic peoples, including those tribes in the Rhine delta that later became the Franks, are known to have served in the Roman army since the days of Julius Caesar.

After the Roman administration collapsed in Gaul in the s, the armies under the Germanic Batavian Postumus revolted and proclaimed him emperor and then restored order. A few decades later, the Menapian Carausius created a Batavian—British rump state on Roman soil that was supported by Frankish soldiers and raiders. Frankish soldiers such as Magnentius , Silvanus and Arbitio held command positions in the Roman army during the mid 4th century.

From the narrative of Ammianus Marcellinus it is evident that both Frankish and Alamannic tribal armies were organised along Roman lines. After the invasion of Chlodio , the Roman armies at the Rhine border became a Frankish "franchise" and Franks were known to levy Roman-like troops that were supported by a Roman-like armour and weapons industry. This lasted at least until the days of the scholar Procopius c. The Franks under the Merovingians melded Germanic custom with Romanised organisation and several important tactical innovations.

Before their conquest of Gaul, the Franks fought primarily as a tribe, unless they were part of a Roman military unit fighting in conjunction with other imperial units.

The primary sources for Frankish military custom and armament are Ammianus Marcellinus , Agathias and Procopius, the latter two Eastern Roman historians writing about Frankish intervention in the Gothic War.

At this time the Franks, hearing that both the Goths and Romans had suffered severely by the war Now the iron head of this weapon was thick and exceedingly sharp on both sides, while the wooden handle was very short.

And they are accustomed always to throw these axes at a signal in the first charge and thus to shatter the shields of the enemy and kill the men. His contemporary, Agathias, who based his own writings upon the tropes laid down by Procopius, says:. The military equipment of this people [the Franks] is very simple They do not know the use of the coat of mail or greaves and the majority leave the head uncovered, only a few wear the helmet. They have their chests bare and backs naked to the loins, they cover their thighs with either leather or linen.

They do not serve on horseback except in very rare cases. Fighting on foot is both habitual and a national custom and they are proficient in this. At the hip they wear a sword and on the left side their shield is attached. The angons are spears which are neither very short nor very long.

They can be used, if necessary, for throwing like a javelin , and also in hand to hand combat. While the above quotations have been used as a statement of the military practices of the Frankish nation in the 6th century and have even been extrapolated to the entire period preceding Charles Martel 's reforms early mid-8th century , post-Second World War historiography has emphasised the inherited Roman characteristics of the Frankish military from the date of the beginning of the conquest of Gaul.

The Byzantine authors present several contradictions and difficulties. Procopius denies the Franks the use of the spear while Agathias makes it one of their primary weapons. They agree that the Franks were primarily infantrymen, threw axes and carried a sword and shield. Both writers also contradict the authority of Gallic authors of the same general time period Sidonius Apollinaris and Gregory of Tours and the archaeological evidence.

The Lex Ribuaria , the early 7th century legal code of the Rhineland or Ripuarian Franks, specifies the values of various goods when paying a wergild in kind; whereas a spear and shield were worth only two solidi , a sword and scabbard were valued at seven, a helmet at six, and a "metal tunic" at twelve.

The evidence of Gregory and of the Lex Salica implies that the early Franks were a cavalry people. In fact, some modern historians have hypothesised that the Franks possessed so numerous a body of horses that they could use them to plough fields and thus were agriculturally technologically advanced over their neighbours.

The Lex Ribuaria specifies that a mare's value was the same as that of an ox or of a shield and spear, two solidi and a stallion seven or the same as a sword and scabbard, [45] which suggests that horses were relatively common. Perhaps the Byzantine writers considered the Frankish horse to be insignificant relative to the Greek cavalry, which is probably accurate.

The Frankish military establishment incorporated many of the pre-existing Roman institutions in Gaul, especially during and after the conquests of Clovis I in the late 5th and early 6th centuries.

Frankish military strategy revolved around the holding and taking of fortified centres castra and in general these centres were held by garrisons of milities or laeti , who were former Roman mercenaries of Germanic origin. Throughout Gaul, the descendants of Roman soldiers continued to wear their uniforms and perform their ceremonial duties. Immediately beneath the Frankish king in the military hierarchy were the leudes , his sworn followers, who were generally 'old soldiers' in service away from court.

The day-to-day bodyguard of the king was made up of antrustiones senior soldiers who were aristocrats in military service and pueri junior soldiers and not aristocrats.

The Frankish military was not composed solely of Franks and Gallo-Romans, but also contained Saxons , Alans , Taifals and Alemanni. After the conquest of Burgundy , the well-organised military institutions of that kingdom were integrated into the Frankish realm. Chief among these was the standing army under the command of the Patrician of Burgundy. In the late 6th century, during the wars instigated by Fredegund and Brunhilda , the Merovingian monarchs introduced a new element into their militaries: the local levy.

A levy consisted of all the able-bodied men of a district who were required to report for military service when called upon, similar to conscription.

The local levy applied only to a city and its environs. Initially only in certain cities in western Gaul, in Neustria and Aquitaine, did the kings possess the right or power to call up the levy. The commanders of the local levies were always different from the commanders of the urban garrisons. Often the former were commanded by the counts of the districts.

A much rarer occurrence was the general levy, which applied to the entire kingdom and included peasants pauperes and inferiores. General levies could also be made within the still-pagan trans-Rhenish stem duchies on the orders of a monarch. The Saxons , Alemanni and Thuringii all had the institution of the levy and the Frankish monarchs could depend upon their levies until the mid-7th century, when the stem dukes began to sever their ties to the monarchy.

Radulf of Thuringia called up the levy for a war against Sigebert III in Soon the local levy spread to Austrasia and the less Romanised regions of Gaul. On an intermediate level, the kings began calling up territorial levies from the regions of Austrasia which did not have major cities of Roman origin. All the forms of the levy gradually disappeared, however, in the course of the 7th century after the reign of Dagobert I.

Only in Aquitaine, which was fast becoming independent of the central Frankish monarchy, did complex military institutions persist into the 8th century. In the final half of the 7th century and first half of the 8th in Merovingian Gaul, the chief military actors became the lay and ecclesiastical magnates with their bands of armed followers called retainers. Merovingian armies used coats of mail , helmets, shields , lances , swords , bows and arrows and war horses.

The armament of private armies resembled those of the Gallo-Roman potentiatores of the late Empire. A strong element of Alanic cavalry settled in Armorica influenced the fighting style of the Bretons down into the 12th century. The peoples east of the Rhine — Franks, Saxons and even Wends — who were sometimes called upon to serve, wore rudimentary armour and carried weapons such as spears and axes.

Few of these men were mounted. Merovingian society had a militarised nature. The Franks called annual meetings every Marchfeld 1 March , when the king and his nobles assembled in large open fields and determined their targets for the next campaigning season. The meetings were a show of strength on behalf of the monarch and a way for him to retain loyalty among his troops. In wars waged against external foes, the objective was typically the acquisition of booty or the enforcement of tribute.

Only in the lands beyond the Rhine did the Merovingians seek to extend political control over their neighbours. Tactically, the Merovingians borrowed heavily from the Romans, especially regarding siege warfare. Their battle tactics were highly flexible and were designed to meet the specific circumstances of a battle.

The tactic of subterfuge was employed endlessly. Cavalry formed a large segment of an army [ citation needed ] , but troops readily dismounted to fight on foot. In a modern linguistic context, the language of the early Franks is variously called "Old Frankish" or "Old Franconian" and these terms refer to the language of the Franks prior to the advent of the High German consonant shift , which took place between and CE.

After this consonant shift the Frankish dialect diverges, with the dialects which would become modern Dutch not undergoing the consonantal shift, while all others did so to varying degrees. The Frankish language has not been directly attested, apart from a very small number of runic inscriptions found within contemporary Frankish territory such as the Bergakker inscription.

Nevertheless a significant amount of Frankish vocabulary has been reconstructed by examining early Germanic loanwords found in Old French as well as through comparative reconstruction through Dutch. Although the Franks would eventually conquer all of Gaul , speakers of Frankish apparently expanded in sufficient numbers only into northern Gaul to have a linguistic effect. For several centuries, northern Gaul was a bilingual territory Vulgar Latin and Frankish.

The language used in writing, in government and by the Church was Latin. Urban T. Holmes has proposed that a Germanic language continued to be spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western Austrasia and Northern Neustria as late as the s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language during the 10th century from regions where only French is spoken today.

Early Frankish art and architecture belongs to a phase known as Migration Period art , which has left very few remains. The later period is called Carolingian art , or, especially in architecture, pre-Romanesque. Very little Merovingian architecture has been preserved. The earliest churches seem to have been timber-built, with larger examples being of a basilica type.

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